But how old is the history of perfume? At least as old as the gods. In fact, the perfumes that rose per fumum, through smoke, from the sacrificial altars to the heavens were dedicated to them. The Babylonians practiced libanomancy (from the Greek libanos, incense): omens were taken from how the incense curled up in a spiral. Even in ancient Greece, especially in Epirus, the art of divination was practiced, observing the smoke of incense to draw prophecies. In ancient times, perfumes had a magical-religious value, used for example in Egypt to perfume cult statues, probably not only as an offering, but also with the ulterior motive of protecting them, if made of wood, from woodworms. Pomegranate, spikenard, saffron, calamus, cinnamon, frankincense, myrrh, and aloe are mentioned in King Solomon's hymn (IV, 12-14). The oil with which Mary of Bethany anointed Jesus' feet smelled of spikenard (John 12:3). The term incense refers to a mixture of several aromas from different sources, while frankincense (in jargon, "pure" incense) was obtained from Boswellia papyrifea, just as myrrh is the resin of Commiphora myrrha, but other fragrances such as iris, lily or blue lotus could be added. According to the recipe given by God to Moses in Exodus (30:34), incense had to be prepared with a few ingredients: storax, scented shell, galbanum and frankincense in equal portions. The holy oil for anointing, however, contained myrrh, cinnamon, calamus, cassia and olive oil. Even today, the coronation oil of English sovereigns is composed of rose, orange, jasmine, sesame, cinnamon, benzoin, musk, civet, and ambergris. Among the cargo of the Ulu-burun, a 14th-century BC shipwreck found off the coast of southern Turkey, numerous jars contained the resin of Pistacia terebinthus, a perfumery ingredient grown in Arabia and the Levant, which may correspond to the Mycenaean term ki-ta-no in Linear B. According to D'Agata, Mycenaean aromas (c. 12th century BC) were primarily produced with an ingredient related to a spice mixture of Near Eastern origin, a tradition that continues today among classical authors, despite the fact that many other ingredients used in the preparation of aromas were native to Greece, such as coriander, tiger nut, and fennel (used as astringents), while rose and sage provided the final fragrance. Interestingly, among the ingredients appears Alkanna tinctoria, which was supposed to color the perfumed oil: therefore, the visual aspect also had a certain importance. Although the identification is not accepted by all, myrrh may appear in the Linear B tablets of Knossos, testifying that the incense trade was active before the first millennium BC, during the Bronze Age. Despite the partial documentary obscurity during the so-called Dark Ages in Greece, between the 11th and 9th centuries BC, the ceramic forms and the parallels that can be established with the aroma extraction techniques of the classical era allow us to assume a cultural continuity relating to the world of perfumery that continued over the centuries.
In archaic Rome, the practice of perfumery was closely linked to piety, understood as a duty owed to the gods, ancestors, and homeland. However, perfumes became so widespread and their use so excessive that they had to be banned: in 188 BC, the censors Publicus Licinius and Lucius Julius Caesar banned the sale of foreign essences (including incense), allowing their use only for ritual purposes, in an attempt to safeguard morality. Nonetheless, the phenomenon of perfumery spread, and Rome even became a production center, and the glass industry benefited greatly. With the advent of Christianity, the greater importance given to the spirit rather than to body care contributed to the diminishing importance and use of perfumes and cosmetics, in contrast to the Eastern world, which continued to make extensive use of them. On the threshold of the Renaissance, aromas began to regain popularity, albeit only among the wealthy social classes. It was precisely during this period that the perfume trade shifted from the Mediterranean basin to European capitals, with Venice playing a significant role. Techniques and aromas The main written sources recalling the properties and techniques of preparing perfume compounds remain Theophrastus, De Odoribus, which describes the properties of various oils, but also Dioscurides, De materia medica, which discusses the components and medicinal properties of perfumes with related recipes, while Pliny the Elder discusses the various aromatic plants and their origins. Finally, we recall the Historia Plantarum, a precious manuscript in the Casanatense Library in Rome that can be defined as an encyclopedia of natural sciences, describing plants, minerals, and animals with particular reference to their medical and therapeutic properties. The manuscript dates back to the late 14th century and was executed at the court of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, who later donated it to Wenceslaus IV, King of Bohemia and Germany. Let's look, very schematically, at the main techniques used over the centuries to extract and prepare aromas. The pressing system appears to be the oldest: aromatic plants and vegetable oils were ground together, then the mixture, placed between a sheet, was wrung out. This system was used, for example, for essences extracted from citrus peel, cold-pressed with the addition of water, then filtered. Theophrastus and Dioscurides describe how aromas were left to macerate in fatty bases (primarily olive oil, but also sesame, linseed, or almond oil). The aromatic substances were left to soak until the fat was saturated, that is, it had captured the scent. This technique, also known as enfleurage, was practiced in Grasse, France, in more recent times. The system was used for the more delicate aromas that could not tolerate the heat of distillation. Boiling in water also allowed the substances to release their odor. The distiller discovered at Mohendjo Daro in the Indus Valley (3rd millennium BC) is the ancestor of those found in the perfume factory of Pyrgos in Cyprus (19th BC), confirming the use of ancient techniques, handmaidens of today's: the funnels discovered at Pyrgos are the predecessors of modern separating funnels. If Corinth was famous for its iris-based perfume, Capua and Naples were renowned for their rose perfume (Pliny, Naturalis Historia XIII, 5). Some perfume names are also known: Rhodinum, made from rose, fennel, myrrh, and incense. Fennel was also used to prepare eye drops, while dried and powdered rose was used to perfume linens or to wipe away sweat; Mirtum-Laurum, with laurel, myrtle, myrrh, and lily; Susinum, with lilies, honey, myrrh, and saffron; Illirium, with lilies, laurel, and myrtle; Melinon, with marjoram, vine leaves, bitter almonds, and quince; and Iasminum, made from jasmine. Other more prized perfumes included Cyprinum, Regium, Thurarium, Telinum, and Metopium. All of these are plant-based ointments, but others could also be made with minerals or animal derivatives. Glass balsamarium with a short cylindrical neck and pear-shaped belly, unknown provenance, Augustan-Claudian period, National Concordiese Museum, Portogruaro. Glass unguent container with a spheroidal belly, Augustan-Neronian period, unknown provenance, National Concordiese Museum, Portogruaro. Glass unguent container with a spheroidal belly, unknown provenance, third decade-end of the first century AD, National Concordiese Museum, Portogruaro. Ceramic unguent container from Portogruaro, San Giacomo, 1st-2nd century AD, National Concordiese Museum, Portogruaro. Glass unguent container from Portogruaro, San Giacomo, 1st-2nd century AD, National Concordiese Museum, Portogruaro. The allure of the container Stone and alabaster are the most commonly used materials in Egypt for preserving aromas, but over the centuries, ceramic and glass were used, up to the very precious Baccarat crystal containers, between the 19th and 20th centuries. Ancient perfume holders often had a functional form: their small size, small necks, and narrow spout diameter suggest that the liquid was poured out in very small quantities or collected on the wide, flat rim, as in aryballoi. Pliny himself confirms that these special jugs contained perfumed oil, and modern archaeometric research confirms this use. The fact that they were traded in small quantities suggests that they were nevertheless expensive products. As we have already mentioned, in Athens as in Rome, perfumes became a symbol of a lifestyle marked by luxury: yesterday as today, this combination is hidden in the advertising messages associated with the precious bottles, which make perfume an element of distinction, hedonism, and a status symbol. Olfactory communication If in the 19th century, While a distinction was made between primary senses (sight and hearing) and secondary senses (touch, taste, smell),17 in (recent) Western culture, more importance is given to the intellectual senses due to a greater trust in science and technology rather than to bodily sensory perceptions. This forgets, however, that smell and taste help distinguish, for example, spoiled food, suggesting what is edible or not, thus fulfilling a very important protective function. Of course, seeing and hearing are forms of knowledge, but perhaps it is worth remembering that "sapere" (valid for all Romance languages) derives from the Latin savour, meaning to taste, to smell. Among the Songhai population, for example, different sauces are served depending on the social status of the guest. Taste, therefore, is closely linked to the definition of social categories. Returning to olfactory perception, we can emphasize the role of body tattoos among the Ongee people (Andaman Islands), which are not only decorative but also serve primarily to regulate body odor. Since diet and hygiene are directly linked to the odors emanating from the body, it follows that every cultural tradition linked to these habits implies an olfactory identifier. Food choices are also dictated by social or religious rules: dietary prohibitions (vegetarian, Muslim, Catholic during certain periods of the liturgical year, etc.) as well as convivial situations are at the basis of community phenomena, a fundamental part of the development and reproduction of social roles (think of the Indian potlatch or social smoking/drinking situations). Socrates emphasized how the growing use of aromas and perfumes by both free men and slaves had a powerful social effect that contributed to blurring the distinction between them: "If a slave and a free man are both anointed with perfumes, they will smell alike." For Socrates, therefore, odors reflect social classes: starting from the principle that perfumes are for the gods, then following the hierarchy. 21 What we perceive through smell can influence our perception of the world around us, making us appreciate our environment in a positive or negative way: in this sense, the odors emanating from them can be interpreted as a tool for nonverbal communication. In classical Greece, for example, sacrifice was perceived as a means of communication between gods and men, an olfactory bond that establishes the roles of men and gods. For Latin authors such as Cicero and Quintilian, language itself can be defined as "odorous." 22 The connection between "olfactory communication" and "social identification" is, therefore, easily established: if a scent, in fact, communicates something, it is possible to use this stimulus to create categories. Olfactory perception, in fact, has implications for social psychology, that is, it affects interactive behaviors, such as social categorizations or interpersonal attraction, influencing behavior. 23 We mentioned that awareness of a scent arouses our attention. Smells alter moods and, above all, our perception of other people. Let's start with the biblical story, reported in Genesis 27:24: Isaac is deceived by his son Jacob, who, by donning his brother Esau's clothes, pretends to be Esau, obtaining his father's blessing. Fragrance is therefore an unmistakable personal badge, a mark that distinguishes people. Smells, perfumes, hygiene: they create a social barrier and represent an effective parameter of distinction. They allow us to recognize who or what is similar and, similarly, become a means of distinguishing ourselves. They identify, separate, or unite people and places. In this context, the role of olfactory memory becomes fundamental in recognizing whether something has an emotional/domestic connection or is to be considered unknown/unknown/foreign and therefore different. Furthermore, each mummy had its own distinctive aroma, obtained from the combination of different spices used for embalming, so that, in the event of amputation, its odor and therefore its owner could be recognized. 24 Although perfume is widespread across cultures and eras, the cost of raw materials made it almost the exclusive prerogative of the wealthy classes, although cheaper preparations also existed, as Plautus (Poenulus, 267) seems to confirm when speaking of "common" perfumes, used by the poor. Nowadays, the introduction of synthetic substances has lowered production costs, making perfuming a mass event, significantly increasing its consumption. Nevertheless, perfumes do not lose their fragrance and their charm, leveraging that imperceptible emotion linked to the "pleasure of pleasing."
Grasse, the capital of perfume.
Located inland from Cannes, Grasse has become the world capital of perfume. For four centuries, the city of Grasse has been characterized by its floral culture. In 2018, UNESCO inscribed "the city's perfume expertise" among its intangible cultural heritage. The "Made in Grasse" trend has taken hold and created a craze among major perfume houses. Beyond global recognition, it is also a source of regional development and employment growth.
The encounter between Grasse and perfume
If the history of perfume dates back to Ancient Egypt, the city of Grasse first encountered perfume in the 16th century.
During the Renaissance, Catherine de' Medici brought the fashion for scented gloves to the French court. As a lawyer, she imported leather from Spain, which was then perfumed in Grasse by the Tombarelli family.
Initially, the first French city to dethrone Venice in the perfume industry was Montpellier. With the rise of the Master Perfumers and the favorable climate for growing perfume plants, Grasse became the perfume capital. Once its reputation had consolidated, the profession of perfumer was recognized in 1614. However, France entered a major financial crisis, and leather became very expensive. Master perfumers diversified, dedicating themselves to the perfumery of handkerchiefs and fans. They gradually abandoned leather perfume at the end of the Enlightenment. The Masters were close to those in power, such as René le Florentin, who served Catherine de Médicis, suspected of being a poisoner, as Alexandre Dumas, père, recounts in La Reine Margot.
It was at this precise moment that Grasse became the cradle of perfumers, with Tombarelli, Fragonard, and Chiris as pioneering families. Are these names familiar? They epitomize the art of Grasse perfumery. Fragonard perfumery enjoyed success with its scented soaps made with high-end, essentially local raw materials. However, Molinard was very close by. The latter directly seduced the wealthy, including Queen Victoria, before intoxicating the Roaring Twenties with the famous Habanita perfume, the first oriental perfume for women. The delicate ointments based on local flowers quickly penetrated the court of Louis XV.
It is therefore thanks to the professions of glove maker and perfumer and the various players in the perfume industry that Grasse obtains its international influence.
Plant cultivation as an economic dynamic
From Dior's jasmine to CHANEL's roses, ancestral know-how is the economic lung of the city of Grasse.
Grasse inspires many artists from around the world. Therefore, beyond culture, this place is also conducive to encounters and exchanges. It was here that Gabrielle Chanel met perfumer Ernest Beaux to design CHANEL N°5 in 1921. At the couturier's request, this iconic fragrance contains a generous amount of Jasmine Grandiflorum.
This jasmine is a white wildflower with a rich, animal scent; very powerful, it was extracted through enfleurage. This is an ancient distillation technique that involves placing the so-called fragile flowers in animal fat to capture the odorous molecules. Present in many perfumes, this flower adds richness and substance to the heart notes.
Among the emblematic flowers, we also find the Rosa Centifolia, nicknamed May Rose. This flower, with its hundreds of petals, is an integral part of Grasse's heritage due to its rare blooms. Since it blooms from May onwards, it is essential to harvest it at dawn to preserve maximum olfactory concentration. Around the city, bigaradiers and lavender plantations dominate the estates.
It was this fertile land that encouraged the locals to build their own estate. Flower cultivation, however meticulous, holds a special place, especially because some of the great Maisons collaborate. Dior has joined forces with the Manon estate. The latter, located in the commune, cultivates perfume plants, perpetuating the same expertise for four centuries. Whether it's jasmine grandiflorum, rose centifolia, or tuberose, each flower is hand-picked by the farmers.
CHANEL also collaborates with the Mul family in Grasse. They also cultivate Iris Pallida. This flower's fragrance is found in its roots six years after planting. The rhizomes take no less than three years to develop underground, but it takes another three years after uprooting for the rhizome to dry out and for the iron, the perfume molecule, to be transferred. Iris is one of the most expensive raw materials in the perfume industry, partly due to its lengthy cultivation and partly due to its low yield. Seven to eight tons of rhizomes are needed for one kilogram of perfume material. Furthermore, 85% of the final weight is lost.
However, Grasse hasn't always been a leading floriculture hub. Thirty years ago, jasmine, rose, and violet plantations reappeared in the region after they were on the verge of extinction. This was because the town had chosen to focus on seaside tourism rather than the perfume industry. Its proximity to Cannes made it a strategic location for mass tourism. Today, perfume is the driving force behind Grasse's economy and dynamics. However, a question arises: how can we halt the disenchantment with the town of Grasse and revitalize this historic area?
Beyond perfume, Grasse bets on novelty
The collection is not limited to eau de parfum, toiletries or Cologne, allowing Grasse to diversify its business and further consolidate its reputation.
To achieve its status as the "Perfume Capital," the city will emphasize its cultural dimension by creating the International Perfume Museum in the city center, allowing visitors to learn about the history of perfumery, from Ancient Egypt to the present day. Grasse is also home to the Galimard, Molinard, and Fragonard museums, which offer tours of the perfume factory.
However, Grasse no longer intends to be one of these sleeping beauties, cities forgotten by development policies and weakened by metropolitanization. Since 2015, the Perfume Capital has been struggling against the decay of its historic heart. Impoverishment and the cramped conditions of its aging housing create an imbalance with its international influence. The city wants to capitalize on its diversity to attract workers, strengthen its sectors, and attract a student population, proposing a development and spatial planning project as a new center of higher education.
Globalization and perfume: a beneficial backlash
Globalization – and more specifically its effect on fragrant raw materials – allows the city to export "Made in Grasse" to the world.
This globalization allows for an olfactory opening to the world. However, the export of many raw materials is reaching its limits. From Indonesian patchouli to Virginia cedar to Calabrian bergamot, so many varieties have been discovered and delicately crafted to offer a remarkable and enriching olfactory combination. However, this enrichment comes at a cost, and in this case, a repercussion: the decline of French crops. For a time, the high cost of local crops and overproduction negatively impacted French trade. Furthermore, the discovery of synthetic raw materials with diverse facets replaced some of the natural ones, lowering the price of formulas.
The recent trend toward "100% natural" perfumes, or at least those containing as many natural ingredients as possible, is giving producers hope. Helped by the health crisis, which is prompting a certain "return to basics," Grasse producers are seeing their businesses take off again.
Grasse's reputation precedes it locally, nationally, and globally. Moreover, among the many perfumers associated with it, we can mention François Demachy, official perfumer of the House of Dior. The latter, protector of Grasse's traditions, highlights the farmers of the City of Perfume.
Since the Renaissance, Grasse has had a tradition of cultivating high-end perfume plants and has built a reputation not only among luxury perfume houses but also among perfumers themselves, even becoming a veritable home for them. By democratizing its expertise through its cultural heritage, Grasse thus upholds a duty of remembrance. Furthermore, despite the sometimes uncertain economic climate, it has managed to keep the region vibrant by providing economic and territorial momentum. With nearly €11 million invested between 2018 and 2021, Grasse is in full transition to develop the city and preserve its centuries-old expertise.